[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":3177},["ShallowReactive",2],{"page-\u002Fcli-runtime-systems-integration\u002Flocal-state-and-sqlite-in-python-clis\u002Fmigrating-a-cli-sqlite-schema\u002F":3,"content-directory":2333},{"id":4,"title":5,"body":6,"date":2317,"description":2318,"difficulty":2319,"draft":2320,"extension":2321,"meta":2322,"navigation":129,"path":2323,"seo":2324,"stem":2325,"tags":2326,"updated":2317,"__hash__":2332},"content\u002Fcli-runtime-systems-integration\u002Flocal-state-and-sqlite-in-python-clis\u002Fmigrating-a-cli-sqlite-schema\u002Findex.md","Migrating a CLI’s SQLite Schema Between Releases",{"type":7,"value":8,"toc":2298},"minimark",[9,28,33,54,58,64,68,84,88,1279,1287,1361,1365,1378,1384,1401,1404,1408,1465,1468,1472,1480,2204,2207,2211,2221,2225,2229,2235,2239,2242,2246,2249,2253,2259,2263,2294],[10,11,12,13,17,18,21,22,27],"p",{},"A server application migrates one database, on a deploy you control. A CLI migrates thousands of databases — one on every user's machine — whenever each user happens to upgrade, from whatever version they happen to be on. Some will jump from 1.2 straight to 3.0. Some will run 3.0 once, then go back to 2.9 because of a bug. Some will press Ctrl-C halfway through the first run of the new version. A migration system for a CLI has to handle all of that without anyone watching, and without losing the history or state the user has accumulated. This guide builds one on SQLite's ",[14,15,16],"code",{},"user_version"," pragma, with SQL and Python migration steps, the table-rebuild technique for changes ",[14,19,20],{},"ALTER TABLE"," cannot make, a guard against downgrades, automatic backups and a test for every historical version. It belongs to the ",[23,24,26],"a",{"href":25},"\u002Fcli-runtime-systems-integration\u002Flocal-state-and-sqlite-in-python-clis\u002F","SQLite state topic",".",[29,30,32],"h2",{"id":31},"prerequisites","Prerequisites",[34,35,36,44],"ul",{},[37,38,39,40,27],"li",{},"Python 3.10+ and a CLI that already stores state in SQLite, for example with the repository class from ",[23,41,43],{"href":42},"\u002Fcli-runtime-systems-integration\u002Flocal-state-and-sqlite-in-python-clis\u002Fstoring-cli-state-in-sqlite\u002F","storing CLI state in SQLite",[37,45,46,47,50,51,53],{},"Familiarity with SQL ",[14,48,49],{},"CREATE TABLE",", ",[14,52,20],{}," and transactions.",[29,55,57],{"id":56},"the-model-an-ordered-list-and-one-integer","The model: an ordered list and one integer",[10,59,60,61,63],{},"Every SQLite database has a 32-bit integer in its header, ",[14,62,16],{},", which SQLite itself never touches. It starts at 0. The migration system treats it as \"the number of migrations applied\", keeps an ordered list of migrations in the code, and on every start applies the ones the database has not seen yet.",[65,66],"inline-diagram",{"name":67},"sql-migrate-model",[10,69,70,71,75,76,79,80,83],{},"The rules that make this robust are few. Migrations are ",[72,73,74],"strong",{},"append-only",": once released, a migration is never edited or reordered, because some user's database already ran it. Each migration runs ",[72,77,78],{},"in its own transaction together with the version bump",", so the database is always at exactly one known version. And the code ",[72,81,82],{},"refuses to touch a database newer than it understands",", because an old release cannot know what a newer one changed.",[29,85,87],{"id":86},"the-recipe","The recipe",[89,90,95],"pre",{"className":91,"code":92,"language":93,"meta":94,"style":94},"language-python shiki shiki-themes github-light github-dark","# src\u002Fmytool\u002Fmigrations.py\nfrom __future__ import annotations\n\nimport sqlite3\nfrom collections.abc import Callable\nfrom contextlib import closing\nfrom pathlib import Path\n\nStep = str | Callable[[sqlite3.Connection], None]\n\n\ndef _split_tags(conn: sqlite3.Connection) -> None:\n    \"\"\"v3: move comma-separated tags into their own table.\"\"\"\n    rows = conn.execute(\"SELECT id, tags FROM notes WHERE tags != ''\").fetchall()\n    conn.executemany(\n        \"INSERT INTO note_tags (note_id, tag) VALUES (?, ?)\",\n        [(note_id, t.strip()) for note_id, tags in rows for t in tags.split(\",\") if t.strip()],\n    )\n\n\ndef _rebuild_notes_without_tags(conn: sqlite3.Connection) -> None:\n    \"\"\"v4: drop the old tags column by rebuilding the table.\"\"\"\n    conn.execute(\"\"\"CREATE TABLE notes_new (\n                        id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,\n                        text TEXT NOT NULL,\n                        created_at TEXT NOT NULL)\"\"\")\n    conn.execute(\"INSERT INTO notes_new (id, text, created_at) \"\n                 \"SELECT id, text, created_at FROM notes\")\n    conn.execute(\"DROP TABLE notes\")\n    conn.execute(\"ALTER TABLE notes_new RENAME TO notes\")\n\n\nMIGRATIONS: list[Step] = [\n    # v1\n    \"CREATE TABLE notes (id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, text TEXT NOT NULL, tags TEXT NOT NULL DEFAULT '')\",\n    # v2\n    \"ALTER TABLE notes ADD COLUMN created_at TEXT NOT NULL DEFAULT '1970-01-01T00:00:00+00:00'\",\n    # v3: two statements and a data migration, applied together\n    lambda conn: (\n        conn.execute(\"CREATE TABLE note_tags (note_id INTEGER NOT NULL REFERENCES notes(id) \"\n                     \"ON DELETE CASCADE, tag TEXT NOT NULL, PRIMARY KEY (note_id, tag))\"),\n        _split_tags(conn),\n    ),\n    # v4\n    _rebuild_notes_without_tags,\n]\nLATEST = len(MIGRATIONS)\n\n\nclass SchemaTooNew(Exception):\n    def __init__(self, found: int) -> None:\n        super().__init__(f\"database schema v{found} is newer than this version of mytool \"\n                         f\"understands (v{LATEST}); upgrade mytool to use it\")\n        self.found = found\n\n\ndef current_version(conn: sqlite3.Connection) -> int:\n    return conn.execute(\"PRAGMA user_version\").fetchone()[0]\n\n\ndef backup(path: Path, version: int) -> Path:\n    dest = path.with_name(f\"{path.name}.v{version}.bak\")\n    with closing(sqlite3.connect(path)) as src, closing(sqlite3.connect(dest)) as dst:\n        src.backup(dst)\n    return dest\n\n\ndef migrate(conn: sqlite3.Connection, *, db_path: Path | None = None) -> list[int]:\n    \"\"\"Apply pending migrations; return the versions applied.\"\"\"\n    found = current_version(conn)\n    if found > LATEST:\n        raise SchemaTooNew(found)\n    if found == LATEST:\n        return []\n    if db_path is not None and found > 0:\n        backup(db_path, found)                       # only for existing data\n    applied = []\n    previous = conn.isolation_level\n    conn.isolation_level = None                      # we issue BEGIN\u002FCOMMIT ourselves\n    conn.execute(\"PRAGMA foreign_keys = OFF\")        # needed for rebuilds; no-op inside BEGIN\n    try:\n        for number in range(found + 1, LATEST + 1):\n            step = MIGRATIONS[number - 1]\n            conn.execute(\"BEGIN IMMEDIATE\")          # step + version bump: one transaction\n            try:\n                if isinstance(step, str):\n                    conn.execute(step)\n                else:\n                    step(conn)\n                conn.execute(f\"PRAGMA user_version = {number}\")\n                conn.execute(\"COMMIT\")\n            except BaseException:\n                conn.execute(\"ROLLBACK\")\n                raise\n            applied.append(number)\n        problems = conn.execute(\"PRAGMA foreign_key_check\").fetchall()\n        if problems:\n            raise sqlite3.IntegrityError(f\"foreign key violations after migration: {problems[:3]}\")\n    finally:\n        conn.execute(\"PRAGMA foreign_keys = ON\")\n        conn.isolation_level = previous\n    return applied\n","python","",[14,96,97,106,124,131,140,153,166,179,184,208,213,218,236,243,260,266,275,315,321,326,331,345,351,360,366,372,381,389,397,407,417,422,427,441,447,455,461,469,475,484,493,502,508,514,520,526,531,550,555,560,577,599,631,648,662,667,672,686,705,710,715,731,769,789,795,803,808,813,848,854,865,882,891,905,914,942,951,961,972,985,999,1007,1041,1062,1077,1085,1102,1108,1116,1122,1144,1154,1165,1175,1181,1187,1202,1211,1242,1250,1260,1271],{"__ignoreMap":94},[98,99,102],"span",{"class":100,"line":101},"line",1,[98,103,105],{"class":104},"sJ8bj","# src\u002Fmytool\u002Fmigrations.py\n",[98,107,109,113,117,120],{"class":100,"line":108},2,[98,110,112],{"class":111},"szBVR","from",[98,114,116],{"class":115},"sj4cs"," __future__",[98,118,119],{"class":111}," import",[98,121,123],{"class":122},"sVt8B"," annotations\n",[98,125,127],{"class":100,"line":126},3,[98,128,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},true,"\n",[98,132,134,137],{"class":100,"line":133},4,[98,135,136],{"class":111},"import",[98,138,139],{"class":122}," sqlite3\n",[98,141,143,145,148,150],{"class":100,"line":142},5,[98,144,112],{"class":111},[98,146,147],{"class":122}," collections.abc ",[98,149,136],{"class":111},[98,151,152],{"class":122}," Callable\n",[98,154,156,158,161,163],{"class":100,"line":155},6,[98,157,112],{"class":111},[98,159,160],{"class":122}," contextlib ",[98,162,136],{"class":111},[98,164,165],{"class":122}," closing\n",[98,167,169,171,174,176],{"class":100,"line":168},7,[98,170,112],{"class":111},[98,172,173],{"class":122}," pathlib ",[98,175,136],{"class":111},[98,177,178],{"class":122}," Path\n",[98,180,182],{"class":100,"line":181},8,[98,183,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,185,187,190,193,196,199,202,205],{"class":100,"line":186},9,[98,188,189],{"class":122},"Step ",[98,191,192],{"class":111},"=",[98,194,195],{"class":115}," str",[98,197,198],{"class":111}," |",[98,200,201],{"class":122}," Callable[[sqlite3.Connection], ",[98,203,204],{"class":115},"None",[98,206,207],{"class":122},"]\n",[98,209,211],{"class":100,"line":210},10,[98,212,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,214,216],{"class":100,"line":215},11,[98,217,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,219,221,224,228,231,233],{"class":100,"line":220},12,[98,222,223],{"class":111},"def",[98,225,227],{"class":226},"sScJk"," _split_tags",[98,229,230],{"class":122},"(conn: sqlite3.Connection) -> ",[98,232,204],{"class":115},[98,234,235],{"class":122},":\n",[98,237,239],{"class":100,"line":238},13,[98,240,242],{"class":241},"sZZnC","    \"\"\"v3: move comma-separated tags into their own table.\"\"\"\n",[98,244,246,249,251,254,257],{"class":100,"line":245},14,[98,247,248],{"class":122},"    rows ",[98,250,192],{"class":111},[98,252,253],{"class":122}," conn.execute(",[98,255,256],{"class":241},"\"SELECT id, tags FROM notes WHERE tags != ''\"",[98,258,259],{"class":122},").fetchall()\n",[98,261,263],{"class":100,"line":262},15,[98,264,265],{"class":122},"    conn.executemany(\n",[98,267,269,272],{"class":100,"line":268},16,[98,270,271],{"class":241},"        \"INSERT INTO note_tags (note_id, tag) VALUES (?, ?)\"",[98,273,274],{"class":122},",\n",[98,276,278,281,284,287,290,293,295,298,300,303,306,309,312],{"class":100,"line":277},17,[98,279,280],{"class":122},"        [(note_id, t.strip()) ",[98,282,283],{"class":111},"for",[98,285,286],{"class":122}," note_id, tags ",[98,288,289],{"class":111},"in",[98,291,292],{"class":122}," rows ",[98,294,283],{"class":111},[98,296,297],{"class":122}," t ",[98,299,289],{"class":111},[98,301,302],{"class":122}," tags.split(",[98,304,305],{"class":241},"\",\"",[98,307,308],{"class":122},") ",[98,310,311],{"class":111},"if",[98,313,314],{"class":122}," t.strip()],\n",[98,316,318],{"class":100,"line":317},18,[98,319,320],{"class":122},"    )\n",[98,322,324],{"class":100,"line":323},19,[98,325,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,327,329],{"class":100,"line":328},20,[98,330,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,332,334,336,339,341,343],{"class":100,"line":333},21,[98,335,223],{"class":111},[98,337,338],{"class":226}," _rebuild_notes_without_tags",[98,340,230],{"class":122},[98,342,204],{"class":115},[98,344,235],{"class":122},[98,346,348],{"class":100,"line":347},22,[98,349,350],{"class":241},"    \"\"\"v4: drop the old tags column by rebuilding the table.\"\"\"\n",[98,352,354,357],{"class":100,"line":353},23,[98,355,356],{"class":122},"    conn.execute(",[98,358,359],{"class":241},"\"\"\"CREATE TABLE notes_new (\n",[98,361,363],{"class":100,"line":362},24,[98,364,365],{"class":241},"                        id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,\n",[98,367,369],{"class":100,"line":368},25,[98,370,371],{"class":241},"                        text TEXT NOT NULL,\n",[98,373,375,378],{"class":100,"line":374},26,[98,376,377],{"class":241},"                        created_at TEXT NOT NULL)\"\"\"",[98,379,380],{"class":122},")\n",[98,382,384,386],{"class":100,"line":383},27,[98,385,356],{"class":122},[98,387,388],{"class":241},"\"INSERT INTO notes_new (id, text, created_at) \"\n",[98,390,392,395],{"class":100,"line":391},28,[98,393,394],{"class":241},"                 \"SELECT id, text, created_at FROM notes\"",[98,396,380],{"class":122},[98,398,400,402,405],{"class":100,"line":399},29,[98,401,356],{"class":122},[98,403,404],{"class":241},"\"DROP TABLE notes\"",[98,406,380],{"class":122},[98,408,410,412,415],{"class":100,"line":409},30,[98,411,356],{"class":122},[98,413,414],{"class":241},"\"ALTER TABLE notes_new RENAME TO notes\"",[98,416,380],{"class":122},[98,418,420],{"class":100,"line":419},31,[98,421,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,423,425],{"class":100,"line":424},32,[98,426,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,428,430,433,436,438],{"class":100,"line":429},33,[98,431,432],{"class":115},"MIGRATIONS",[98,434,435],{"class":122},": list[Step] ",[98,437,192],{"class":111},[98,439,440],{"class":122}," [\n",[98,442,444],{"class":100,"line":443},34,[98,445,446],{"class":104},"    # v1\n",[98,448,450,453],{"class":100,"line":449},35,[98,451,452],{"class":241},"    \"CREATE TABLE notes (id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, text TEXT NOT NULL, tags TEXT NOT NULL DEFAULT '')\"",[98,454,274],{"class":122},[98,456,458],{"class":100,"line":457},36,[98,459,460],{"class":104},"    # v2\n",[98,462,464,467],{"class":100,"line":463},37,[98,465,466],{"class":241},"    \"ALTER TABLE notes ADD COLUMN created_at TEXT NOT NULL DEFAULT '1970-01-01T00:00:00+00:00'\"",[98,468,274],{"class":122},[98,470,472],{"class":100,"line":471},38,[98,473,474],{"class":104},"    # v3: two statements and a data migration, applied together\n",[98,476,478,481],{"class":100,"line":477},39,[98,479,480],{"class":111},"    lambda",[98,482,483],{"class":122}," conn: (\n",[98,485,487,490],{"class":100,"line":486},40,[98,488,489],{"class":122},"        conn.execute(",[98,491,492],{"class":241},"\"CREATE TABLE note_tags (note_id INTEGER NOT NULL REFERENCES notes(id) \"\n",[98,494,496,499],{"class":100,"line":495},41,[98,497,498],{"class":241},"                     \"ON DELETE CASCADE, tag TEXT NOT NULL, PRIMARY KEY (note_id, tag))\"",[98,500,501],{"class":122},"),\n",[98,503,505],{"class":100,"line":504},42,[98,506,507],{"class":122},"        _split_tags(conn),\n",[98,509,511],{"class":100,"line":510},43,[98,512,513],{"class":122},"    ),\n",[98,515,517],{"class":100,"line":516},44,[98,518,519],{"class":104},"    # v4\n",[98,521,523],{"class":100,"line":522},45,[98,524,525],{"class":122},"    _rebuild_notes_without_tags,\n",[98,527,529],{"class":100,"line":528},46,[98,530,207],{"class":122},[98,532,534,537,540,543,546,548],{"class":100,"line":533},47,[98,535,536],{"class":115},"LATEST",[98,538,539],{"class":111}," =",[98,541,542],{"class":115}," len",[98,544,545],{"class":122},"(",[98,547,432],{"class":115},[98,549,380],{"class":122},[98,551,553],{"class":100,"line":552},48,[98,554,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,556,558],{"class":100,"line":557},49,[98,559,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,561,563,566,569,571,574],{"class":100,"line":562},50,[98,564,565],{"class":111},"class",[98,567,568],{"class":226}," SchemaTooNew",[98,570,545],{"class":122},[98,572,573],{"class":115},"Exception",[98,575,576],{"class":122},"):\n",[98,578,580,583,586,589,592,595,597],{"class":100,"line":579},51,[98,581,582],{"class":111},"    def",[98,584,585],{"class":115}," __init__",[98,587,588],{"class":122},"(self, found: ",[98,590,591],{"class":115},"int",[98,593,594],{"class":122},") -> ",[98,596,204],{"class":115},[98,598,235],{"class":122},[98,600,602,605,608,611,613,616,619,622,625,628],{"class":100,"line":601},52,[98,603,604],{"class":115},"        super",[98,606,607],{"class":122},"().",[98,609,610],{"class":115},"__init__",[98,612,545],{"class":122},[98,614,615],{"class":111},"f",[98,617,618],{"class":241},"\"database schema v",[98,620,621],{"class":115},"{",[98,623,624],{"class":122},"found",[98,626,627],{"class":115},"}",[98,629,630],{"class":241}," is newer than this version of mytool \"\n",[98,632,634,637,640,643,646],{"class":100,"line":633},53,[98,635,636],{"class":111},"                         f",[98,638,639],{"class":241},"\"understands (v",[98,641,642],{"class":115},"{LATEST}",[98,644,645],{"class":241},"); upgrade mytool to use it\"",[98,647,380],{"class":122},[98,649,651,654,657,659],{"class":100,"line":650},54,[98,652,653],{"class":115},"        self",[98,655,656],{"class":122},".found ",[98,658,192],{"class":111},[98,660,661],{"class":122}," found\n",[98,663,665],{"class":100,"line":664},55,[98,666,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,668,670],{"class":100,"line":669},56,[98,671,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,673,675,677,680,682,684],{"class":100,"line":674},57,[98,676,223],{"class":111},[98,678,679],{"class":226}," current_version",[98,681,230],{"class":122},[98,683,591],{"class":115},[98,685,235],{"class":122},[98,687,689,692,694,697,700,703],{"class":100,"line":688},58,[98,690,691],{"class":111},"    return",[98,693,253],{"class":122},[98,695,696],{"class":241},"\"PRAGMA user_version\"",[98,698,699],{"class":122},").fetchone()[",[98,701,702],{"class":115},"0",[98,704,207],{"class":122},[98,706,708],{"class":100,"line":707},59,[98,709,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,711,713],{"class":100,"line":712},60,[98,714,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,716,718,720,723,726,728],{"class":100,"line":717},61,[98,719,223],{"class":111},[98,721,722],{"class":226}," backup",[98,724,725],{"class":122},"(path: Path, version: ",[98,727,591],{"class":115},[98,729,730],{"class":122},") -> Path:\n",[98,732,734,737,739,742,744,747,749,752,754,757,759,762,764,767],{"class":100,"line":733},62,[98,735,736],{"class":122},"    dest ",[98,738,192],{"class":111},[98,740,741],{"class":122}," path.with_name(",[98,743,615],{"class":111},[98,745,746],{"class":241},"\"",[98,748,621],{"class":115},[98,750,751],{"class":122},"path.name",[98,753,627],{"class":115},[98,755,756],{"class":241},".v",[98,758,621],{"class":115},[98,760,761],{"class":122},"version",[98,763,627],{"class":115},[98,765,766],{"class":241},".bak\"",[98,768,380],{"class":122},[98,770,772,775,778,781,784,786],{"class":100,"line":771},63,[98,773,774],{"class":111},"    with",[98,776,777],{"class":122}," closing(sqlite3.connect(path)) ",[98,779,780],{"class":111},"as",[98,782,783],{"class":122}," src, closing(sqlite3.connect(dest)) ",[98,785,780],{"class":111},[98,787,788],{"class":122}," dst:\n",[98,790,792],{"class":100,"line":791},64,[98,793,794],{"class":122},"        src.backup(dst)\n",[98,796,798,800],{"class":100,"line":797},65,[98,799,691],{"class":111},[98,801,802],{"class":122}," dest\n",[98,804,806],{"class":100,"line":805},66,[98,807,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,809,811],{"class":100,"line":810},67,[98,812,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,814,816,818,821,824,827,830,833,836,838,840,843,845],{"class":100,"line":815},68,[98,817,223],{"class":111},[98,819,820],{"class":226}," migrate",[98,822,823],{"class":122},"(conn: sqlite3.Connection, ",[98,825,826],{"class":111},"*",[98,828,829],{"class":122},", db_path: Path ",[98,831,832],{"class":111},"|",[98,834,835],{"class":115}," None",[98,837,539],{"class":111},[98,839,835],{"class":115},[98,841,842],{"class":122},") -> list[",[98,844,591],{"class":115},[98,846,847],{"class":122},"]:\n",[98,849,851],{"class":100,"line":850},69,[98,852,853],{"class":241},"    \"\"\"Apply pending migrations; return the versions applied.\"\"\"\n",[98,855,857,860,862],{"class":100,"line":856},70,[98,858,859],{"class":122},"    found ",[98,861,192],{"class":111},[98,863,864],{"class":122}," current_version(conn)\n",[98,866,868,871,874,877,880],{"class":100,"line":867},71,[98,869,870],{"class":111},"    if",[98,872,873],{"class":122}," found ",[98,875,876],{"class":111},">",[98,878,879],{"class":115}," LATEST",[98,881,235],{"class":122},[98,883,885,888],{"class":100,"line":884},72,[98,886,887],{"class":111},"        raise",[98,889,890],{"class":122}," SchemaTooNew(found)\n",[98,892,894,896,898,901,903],{"class":100,"line":893},73,[98,895,870],{"class":111},[98,897,873],{"class":122},[98,899,900],{"class":111},"==",[98,902,879],{"class":115},[98,904,235],{"class":122},[98,906,908,911],{"class":100,"line":907},74,[98,909,910],{"class":111},"        return",[98,912,913],{"class":122}," []\n",[98,915,917,919,922,925,928,930,933,935,937,940],{"class":100,"line":916},75,[98,918,870],{"class":111},[98,920,921],{"class":122}," db_path ",[98,923,924],{"class":111},"is",[98,926,927],{"class":111}," not",[98,929,835],{"class":115},[98,931,932],{"class":111}," and",[98,934,873],{"class":122},[98,936,876],{"class":111},[98,938,939],{"class":115}," 0",[98,941,235],{"class":122},[98,943,945,948],{"class":100,"line":944},76,[98,946,947],{"class":122},"        backup(db_path, found)                       ",[98,949,950],{"class":104},"# only for existing data\n",[98,952,954,957,959],{"class":100,"line":953},77,[98,955,956],{"class":122},"    applied ",[98,958,192],{"class":111},[98,960,913],{"class":122},[98,962,964,967,969],{"class":100,"line":963},78,[98,965,966],{"class":122},"    previous ",[98,968,192],{"class":111},[98,970,971],{"class":122}," conn.isolation_level\n",[98,973,975,978,980,982],{"class":100,"line":974},79,[98,976,977],{"class":122},"    conn.isolation_level ",[98,979,192],{"class":111},[98,981,835],{"class":115},[98,983,984],{"class":104},"                      # we issue BEGIN\u002FCOMMIT ourselves\n",[98,986,988,990,993,996],{"class":100,"line":987},80,[98,989,356],{"class":122},[98,991,992],{"class":241},"\"PRAGMA foreign_keys = OFF\"",[98,994,995],{"class":122},")        ",[98,997,998],{"class":104},"# needed for rebuilds; no-op inside BEGIN\n",[98,1000,1002,1005],{"class":100,"line":1001},81,[98,1003,1004],{"class":111},"    try",[98,1006,235],{"class":122},[98,1008,1010,1013,1016,1018,1021,1024,1027,1030,1032,1034,1037,1039],{"class":100,"line":1009},82,[98,1011,1012],{"class":111},"        for",[98,1014,1015],{"class":122}," number ",[98,1017,289],{"class":111},[98,1019,1020],{"class":115}," range",[98,1022,1023],{"class":122},"(found ",[98,1025,1026],{"class":111},"+",[98,1028,1029],{"class":115}," 1",[98,1031,50],{"class":122},[98,1033,536],{"class":115},[98,1035,1036],{"class":111}," +",[98,1038,1029],{"class":115},[98,1040,576],{"class":122},[98,1042,1044,1047,1049,1052,1055,1058,1060],{"class":100,"line":1043},83,[98,1045,1046],{"class":122},"            step ",[98,1048,192],{"class":111},[98,1050,1051],{"class":115}," MIGRATIONS",[98,1053,1054],{"class":122},"[number ",[98,1056,1057],{"class":111},"-",[98,1059,1029],{"class":115},[98,1061,207],{"class":122},[98,1063,1065,1068,1071,1074],{"class":100,"line":1064},84,[98,1066,1067],{"class":122},"            conn.execute(",[98,1069,1070],{"class":241},"\"BEGIN IMMEDIATE\"",[98,1072,1073],{"class":122},")          ",[98,1075,1076],{"class":104},"# step + version bump: one transaction\n",[98,1078,1080,1083],{"class":100,"line":1079},85,[98,1081,1082],{"class":111},"            try",[98,1084,235],{"class":122},[98,1086,1088,1091,1094,1097,1100],{"class":100,"line":1087},86,[98,1089,1090],{"class":111},"                if",[98,1092,1093],{"class":115}," isinstance",[98,1095,1096],{"class":122},"(step, ",[98,1098,1099],{"class":115},"str",[98,1101,576],{"class":122},[98,1103,1105],{"class":100,"line":1104},87,[98,1106,1107],{"class":122},"                    conn.execute(step)\n",[98,1109,1111,1114],{"class":100,"line":1110},88,[98,1112,1113],{"class":111},"                else",[98,1115,235],{"class":122},[98,1117,1119],{"class":100,"line":1118},89,[98,1120,1121],{"class":122},"                    step(conn)\n",[98,1123,1125,1128,1130,1133,1135,1138,1140,1142],{"class":100,"line":1124},90,[98,1126,1127],{"class":122},"                conn.execute(",[98,1129,615],{"class":111},[98,1131,1132],{"class":241},"\"PRAGMA user_version = ",[98,1134,621],{"class":115},[98,1136,1137],{"class":122},"number",[98,1139,627],{"class":115},[98,1141,746],{"class":241},[98,1143,380],{"class":122},[98,1145,1147,1149,1152],{"class":100,"line":1146},91,[98,1148,1127],{"class":122},[98,1150,1151],{"class":241},"\"COMMIT\"",[98,1153,380],{"class":122},[98,1155,1157,1160,1163],{"class":100,"line":1156},92,[98,1158,1159],{"class":111},"            except",[98,1161,1162],{"class":115}," BaseException",[98,1164,235],{"class":122},[98,1166,1168,1170,1173],{"class":100,"line":1167},93,[98,1169,1127],{"class":122},[98,1171,1172],{"class":241},"\"ROLLBACK\"",[98,1174,380],{"class":122},[98,1176,1178],{"class":100,"line":1177},94,[98,1179,1180],{"class":111},"                raise\n",[98,1182,1184],{"class":100,"line":1183},95,[98,1185,1186],{"class":122},"            applied.append(number)\n",[98,1188,1190,1193,1195,1197,1200],{"class":100,"line":1189},96,[98,1191,1192],{"class":122},"        problems ",[98,1194,192],{"class":111},[98,1196,253],{"class":122},[98,1198,1199],{"class":241},"\"PRAGMA foreign_key_check\"",[98,1201,259],{"class":122},[98,1203,1205,1208],{"class":100,"line":1204},97,[98,1206,1207],{"class":111},"        if",[98,1209,1210],{"class":122}," problems:\n",[98,1212,1214,1217,1220,1222,1225,1227,1230,1233,1236,1238,1240],{"class":100,"line":1213},98,[98,1215,1216],{"class":111},"            raise",[98,1218,1219],{"class":122}," sqlite3.IntegrityError(",[98,1221,615],{"class":111},[98,1223,1224],{"class":241},"\"foreign key violations after migration: ",[98,1226,621],{"class":115},[98,1228,1229],{"class":122},"problems[:",[98,1231,1232],{"class":115},"3",[98,1234,1235],{"class":122},"]",[98,1237,627],{"class":115},[98,1239,746],{"class":241},[98,1241,380],{"class":122},[98,1243,1245,1248],{"class":100,"line":1244},99,[98,1246,1247],{"class":111},"    finally",[98,1249,235],{"class":122},[98,1251,1253,1255,1258],{"class":100,"line":1252},100,[98,1254,489],{"class":122},[98,1256,1257],{"class":241},"\"PRAGMA foreign_keys = ON\"",[98,1259,380],{"class":122},[98,1261,1263,1266,1268],{"class":100,"line":1262},101,[98,1264,1265],{"class":122},"        conn.isolation_level ",[98,1267,192],{"class":111},[98,1269,1270],{"class":122}," previous\n",[98,1272,1274,1276],{"class":100,"line":1273},102,[98,1275,691],{"class":111},[98,1277,1278],{"class":122}," applied\n",[1280,1281,1283,1284],"h3",{"id":1282},"why-the-explicit-begin","Why the explicit ",[14,1285,1286],{},"BEGIN",[10,1288,1289,1290,1293,1294,1297,1298,50,1301,50,1304,1307,1308,1311,1312,50,1315,50,1318,1321,1322,1325,1326,1328,1329,1331,1332,1335,1336,50,1339,1307,1342,1345,1346,1349,1350,1353,1354,1307,1357,1360],{},"It is tempting to write each step as ",[14,1291,1292],{},"with conn: conn.execute(step)",", and it looks transactional. It is not, for schema changes. In its default (legacy) transaction mode, Python's ",[14,1295,1296],{},"sqlite3"," module only opens a transaction implicitly before ",[14,1299,1300],{},"INSERT",[14,1302,1303],{},"UPDATE",[14,1305,1306],{},"DELETE"," and ",[14,1309,1310],{},"REPLACE"," — not before ",[14,1313,1314],{},"CREATE",[14,1316,1317],{},"ALTER",[14,1319,1320],{},"DROP"," or ",[14,1323,1324],{},"PRAGMA",". A step that creates a table and then fails, or a crash between the ",[14,1327,49],{}," and the ",[14,1330,16],{}," bump, leaves the table behind while the version still says it was never created; the next run then dies with \"table already exists\". Switching the connection to ",[14,1333,1334],{},"isolation_level = None"," and issuing ",[14,1337,1338],{},"BEGIN IMMEDIATE",[14,1340,1341],{},"COMMIT",[14,1343,1344],{},"ROLLBACK"," yourself makes every step genuinely all-or-nothing, because SQLite itself supports transactional DDL. ",[14,1347,1348],{},"IMMEDIATE"," takes the write lock up front, so two runs migrating at once queue cleanly instead of deadlocking on a lock upgrade. (On Python 3.12+, opening the connection with ",[14,1351,1352],{},"autocommit=False"," gives the same effect with explicit ",[14,1355,1356],{},"commit()",[14,1358,1359],{},"rollback()"," calls.) The failed-step test below exists precisely to catch this.",[1280,1362,1364],{"id":1363},"three-kinds-of-step","Three kinds of step",[10,1366,1367,1370,1371,1374,1375,1377],{},[72,1368,1369],{},"Plain SQL strings"," cover most changes: new tables, new indexes, and ",[14,1372,1373],{},"ALTER TABLE ... ADD COLUMN",". SQLite's ",[14,1376,20],{}," can add, rename and (since 3.35) drop simple columns, but it cannot change a column's type, add a constraint, or drop a column that is indexed or referenced.",[10,1379,1380,1383],{},[72,1381,1382],{},"Python callables"," handle data migrations — splitting a column into a table, normalising values, computing a new field — where SQL alone is awkward. They receive the connection inside the transaction, so a failure rolls back both the data changes and the schema change.",[10,1385,1386,1389,1390,1392,1393,1396,1397,1400],{},[72,1387,1388],{},"Table rebuilds"," handle everything ",[14,1391,20],{}," cannot: create the new table with the desired definition, copy the data across, drop the old table, rename the new one. SQLite's documentation describes this procedure, and it is safe inside a transaction. Foreign key enforcement must be off during the rebuild — otherwise dropping the old table would cascade or fail — which is why ",[14,1394,1395],{},"migrate()"," turns it off for the duration and runs ",[14,1398,1399],{},"PRAGMA foreign_key_check"," afterwards to prove the result is consistent.",[65,1402],{"name":1403},"sql-rebuild-steps",[29,1405,1407],{"id":1406},"ux-considerations","UX considerations",[34,1409,1410,1420,1430,1449,1459],{},[37,1411,1412,1415,1416,1419],{},[72,1413,1414],{},"Migrate automatically, silently when fast."," Users should not have to run a ",[14,1417,1418],{},"migrate"," command; opening the database migrates it. Print a one-line note on stderr only when a migration takes noticeable time or makes a backup.",[37,1421,1422,1425,1426,1429],{},[72,1423,1424],{},"Back up before changing existing data."," The ",[14,1427,1428],{},".v3.bak"," file next to the database costs a little disk and saves the day when a migration has a bug. Keep the last one or two, and mention them in the release notes.",[37,1431,1432,1435,1436,1439,1440,1443,1444,1448],{},[72,1433,1434],{},"Explain downgrades clearly."," ",[14,1437,1438],{},"SchemaTooNew"," turns \"no such column\" crashes into \"this database was created by a newer mytool; upgrade, or run ",[14,1441,1442],{},"mytool db reset"," to start over\". ",[23,1445,1447],{"href":1446},"\u002Fadvanced-input-parsing-user-experience\u002Ferror-handling-and-exit-codes\u002Ffriendly-error-messages-and-tracebacks\u002F","Friendly error messages and tracebacks"," shows where to catch it.",[37,1450,1451,1454,1455,27],{},[72,1452,1453],{},"Avoid long migrations on hot paths."," If a data migration might take minutes on a large database, say so before starting and show progress, as in ",[23,1456,1458],{"href":1457},"\u002Fadvanced-input-parsing-user-experience\u002Finteractive-terminal-ui-with-rich\u002Fadding-progress-bars-and-spinners-to-python-clis\u002F","adding progress bars and spinners",[37,1460,1461,1464],{},[72,1462,1463],{},"Caches do not need migrations."," If a cache's schema changes, delete and recreate it. Reserve migrations for data worth keeping.",[65,1466],{"name":1467},"sql-migrate-terminal",[29,1469,1471],{"id":1470},"testing-the-behaviour","Testing the behaviour",[10,1473,1474,1475,1479],{},"The test that matters most builds a database at ",[1476,1477,1478],"em",{},"every"," historical version with realistic data, migrates it, and checks the result. Because migrations are append-only, a database at version N can be built by applying the first N steps:",[89,1481,1483],{"className":91,"code":1482,"language":93,"meta":94,"style":94},"# tests\u002Ftest_migrations.py\nimport sqlite3\n\nimport pytest\n\nfrom mytool import migrations as m\n\n\ndef at_version(path, version):\n    conn = sqlite3.connect(path)\n    for number, step in enumerate(m.MIGRATIONS[:version], start=1):\n        with conn:\n            conn.execute(step) if isinstance(step, str) else step(conn)\n            conn.execute(f\"PRAGMA user_version = {number}\")\n    return conn\n\n\ndef seed_v1(conn):\n    with conn:\n        conn.execute(\"INSERT INTO notes (id, text, tags) VALUES (1, 'milk', 'home, errand')\")\n        conn.execute(\"INSERT INTO notes (id, text, tags) VALUES (2, 'call Bo', '')\")\n\n\n@pytest.mark.parametrize(\"start\", range(0, m.LATEST + 1))\ndef test_every_version_reaches_latest(tmp_path, start):\n    conn = at_version(tmp_path \u002F \"db.sqlite\", start)\n    m.migrate(conn)\n    assert m.current_version(conn) == m.LATEST\n    cols = [r[1] for r in conn.execute(\"PRAGMA table_info(notes)\")]\n    assert cols == [\"id\", \"text\", \"created_at\"]\n\n\ndef test_data_survives_from_v1(tmp_path):\n    path = tmp_path \u002F \"db.sqlite\"\n    conn = at_version(path, 1)\n    seed_v1(conn)\n    applied = m.migrate(conn, db_path=path)\n    assert applied == [2, 3, 4]\n    tags = conn.execute(\"SELECT tag FROM note_tags WHERE note_id = 1 ORDER BY tag\").fetchall()\n    assert [t[0] for t in tags] == [\"errand\", \"home\"]\n    assert (path.parent \u002F \"db.sqlite.v1.bak\").exists()\n\n\ndef test_failed_step_rolls_back(tmp_path, monkeypatch):\n    conn = at_version(tmp_path \u002F \"db.sqlite\", 2)\n    def boom(conn):\n        conn.execute(\"CREATE TABLE half_done (x)\")\n        raise RuntimeError(\"bug in migration\")\n    monkeypatch.setattr(m, \"MIGRATIONS\", [*m.MIGRATIONS[:2], boom, *m.MIGRATIONS[3:]])\n    with pytest.raises(RuntimeError):\n        m.migrate(conn)\n    assert m.current_version(conn) == 2\n    assert conn.execute(\"SELECT name FROM sqlite_master WHERE name = 'half_done'\").fetchone() is None\n\n\ndef test_newer_database_is_refused(tmp_path):\n    conn = sqlite3.connect(tmp_path \u002F \"db.sqlite\")\n    conn.execute(f\"PRAGMA user_version = {m.LATEST + 1}\")\n    with pytest.raises(m.SchemaTooNew):\n        m.migrate(conn)\n",[14,1484,1485,1490,1496,1500,1507,1511,1528,1532,1536,1546,1556,1588,1596,1617,1635,1642,1646,1650,1660,1666,1675,1684,1688,1692,1723,1733,1751,1756,1772,1802,1829,1833,1837,1847,1862,1875,1880,1897,1922,1936,1970,1985,1989,1993,2003,2021,2030,2039,2053,2093,2105,2110,2121,2138,2142,2146,2155,2170,2193,2200],{"__ignoreMap":94},[98,1486,1487],{"class":100,"line":101},[98,1488,1489],{"class":104},"# tests\u002Ftest_migrations.py\n",[98,1491,1492,1494],{"class":100,"line":108},[98,1493,136],{"class":111},[98,1495,139],{"class":122},[98,1497,1498],{"class":100,"line":126},[98,1499,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,1501,1502,1504],{"class":100,"line":133},[98,1503,136],{"class":111},[98,1505,1506],{"class":122}," pytest\n",[98,1508,1509],{"class":100,"line":142},[98,1510,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,1512,1513,1515,1518,1520,1523,1525],{"class":100,"line":155},[98,1514,112],{"class":111},[98,1516,1517],{"class":122}," mytool ",[98,1519,136],{"class":111},[98,1521,1522],{"class":122}," migrations ",[98,1524,780],{"class":111},[98,1526,1527],{"class":122}," m\n",[98,1529,1530],{"class":100,"line":168},[98,1531,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,1533,1534],{"class":100,"line":181},[98,1535,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,1537,1538,1540,1543],{"class":100,"line":186},[98,1539,223],{"class":111},[98,1541,1542],{"class":226}," at_version",[98,1544,1545],{"class":122},"(path, version):\n",[98,1547,1548,1551,1553],{"class":100,"line":210},[98,1549,1550],{"class":122},"    conn ",[98,1552,192],{"class":111},[98,1554,1555],{"class":122}," sqlite3.connect(path)\n",[98,1557,1558,1561,1564,1566,1569,1572,1574,1577,1581,1583,1586],{"class":100,"line":215},[98,1559,1560],{"class":111},"    for",[98,1562,1563],{"class":122}," number, step ",[98,1565,289],{"class":111},[98,1567,1568],{"class":115}," enumerate",[98,1570,1571],{"class":122},"(m.",[98,1573,432],{"class":115},[98,1575,1576],{"class":122},"[:version], ",[98,1578,1580],{"class":1579},"s4XuR","start",[98,1582,192],{"class":111},[98,1584,1585],{"class":115},"1",[98,1587,576],{"class":122},[98,1589,1590,1593],{"class":100,"line":220},[98,1591,1592],{"class":111},"        with",[98,1594,1595],{"class":122}," conn:\n",[98,1597,1598,1601,1603,1605,1607,1609,1611,1614],{"class":100,"line":238},[98,1599,1600],{"class":122},"            conn.execute(step) ",[98,1602,311],{"class":111},[98,1604,1093],{"class":115},[98,1606,1096],{"class":122},[98,1608,1099],{"class":115},[98,1610,308],{"class":122},[98,1612,1613],{"class":111},"else",[98,1615,1616],{"class":122}," step(conn)\n",[98,1618,1619,1621,1623,1625,1627,1629,1631,1633],{"class":100,"line":245},[98,1620,1067],{"class":122},[98,1622,615],{"class":111},[98,1624,1132],{"class":241},[98,1626,621],{"class":115},[98,1628,1137],{"class":122},[98,1630,627],{"class":115},[98,1632,746],{"class":241},[98,1634,380],{"class":122},[98,1636,1637,1639],{"class":100,"line":262},[98,1638,691],{"class":111},[98,1640,1641],{"class":122}," conn\n",[98,1643,1644],{"class":100,"line":268},[98,1645,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,1647,1648],{"class":100,"line":277},[98,1649,130],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":129},[98,1651,1652,1654,1657],{"class":100,"line":317},[98,1653,223],{"class":111},[98,1655,1656],{"class":226}," 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test_newer_database_is_refused",[98,2154,1846],{"class":122},[98,2156,2157,2159,2161,2164,2166,2168],{"class":100,"line":674},[98,2158,1550],{"class":122},[98,2160,192],{"class":111},[98,2162,2163],{"class":122}," sqlite3.connect(tmp_path ",[98,2165,1744],{"class":111},[98,2167,1747],{"class":241},[98,2169,380],{"class":122},[98,2171,2172,2174,2176,2178,2180,2182,2184,2186,2189,2191],{"class":100,"line":688},[98,2173,356],{"class":122},[98,2175,615],{"class":111},[98,2177,1132],{"class":241},[98,2179,621],{"class":115},[98,2181,2068],{"class":122},[98,2183,536],{"class":115},[98,2185,1036],{"class":111},[98,2187,2188],{"class":115}," 1}",[98,2190,746],{"class":241},[98,2192,380],{"class":122},[98,2194,2195,2197],{"class":100,"line":707},[98,2196,774],{"class":111},[98,2198,2199],{"class":122}," pytest.raises(m.SchemaTooNew):\n",[98,2201,2202],{"class":100,"line":712},[98,2203,2109],{"class":122},[10,2205,2206],{},"The parametrised test grows automatically with every new migration, so a release can never ship a step that breaks upgrades from an older version. For extra confidence, keep a few real database files from old releases as fixtures — they catch data shapes that synthetic seeds miss.",[29,2208,2210],{"id":2209},"conclusion","Conclusion",[10,2212,2213,2214,2217,2218,2220],{},"A CLI's migrations run unattended on every user's machine, so they must be ordered, append-only, transactional and defensive. ",[14,2215,2216],{},"PRAGMA user_version"," gives you the version counter for free; a list of SQL strings and Python callables gives you the steps; table rebuilds cover what ",[14,2219,20],{}," cannot; a backup and a downgrade guard cover the cases where things go wrong. Test every historical version on every change, and schema evolution stops being the scariest part of a release.",[29,2222,2224],{"id":2223},"frequently-asked-questions","Frequently asked questions",[1280,2226,2228],{"id":2227},"should-i-use-alembic","Should I use Alembic?",[10,2230,2231,2232,2234],{},"Alembic is excellent for server databases managed by developers, but for a CLI it adds SQLAlchemy as a dependency, significant import time, and a migration directory to package. A list of steps and ",[14,2233,16],{}," does the same job for the small schemas CLIs have.",[1280,2236,2238],{"id":2237},"can-i-squash-old-migrations","Can I squash old migrations?",[10,2240,2241],{},"Only if you also stop supporting upgrades from the versions they cover. A common compromise: after a major release, replace the first N steps with one step that creates the schema as of version N, but keep the numbering so existing databases at version N or later are unaffected, and refuse databases below N with a clear message.",[1280,2243,2245],{"id":2244},"what-about-downgrade-migrations","What about downgrade migrations?",[10,2247,2248],{},"They are rarely worth writing for a CLI. Users who downgrade can restore the automatic backup or reset the database. The downgrade guard makes sure an old release fails clearly instead of misreading a newer schema.",[1280,2250,2252],{"id":2251},"is-it-safe-if-two-runs-start-a-migration-at-the-same-time","Is it safe if two runs start a migration at the same time?",[10,2254,2255,2256,2258],{},"Yes. The first run takes SQLite's write lock for its first migration step; the second waits on its busy timeout. When it gets the lock, it re-reads ",[14,2257,16],{},", sees nothing left to do and continues. Keep each step short so that wait stays within the timeout.",[29,2260,2262],{"id":2261},"related","Related",[34,2264,2265,2271,2276,2282,2288],{},[37,2266,2267,2268],{},"Up: ",[23,2269,2270],{"href":25},"Local state and SQLite in Python CLIs",[37,2272,2273],{},[23,2274,2275],{"href":42},"Storing CLI state in SQLite",[37,2277,2278],{},[23,2279,2281],{"href":2280},"\u002Fcli-runtime-systems-integration\u002Flocal-state-and-sqlite-in-python-clis\u002Frecording-and-querying-cli-run-history\u002F","Recording and querying CLI run history",[37,2283,2284],{},[23,2285,2287],{"href":2286},"\u002Fproject-setup-dependency-management\u002Fmanaging-cli-versioning-changelogs\u002Fsemantic-versioning-policy-for-cli-tools\u002F","Semantic versioning policy for CLI tools",[37,2289,2290],{},[23,2291,2293],{"href":2292},"\u002Fmodern-python-cli-frameworks-architecture\u002Fplugin-architectures-for-extensible-clis\u002Fversioning-a-plugin-api\u002F","Versioning a plugin 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